![\"\"](\"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/action.jpg\")
<\/p>\n<\/p>\n
Image Source<\/a><\/p>\n During the past decade, advances in modern information and communication technologies have enabled novel forms of economic coordination of under-utilized resources be it human capital, information goods, material goods, or even funding. Perhaps the most noteworthy Internet-based developments that have made resource coordination more effective in recent years are crowdsourcing <\/span>[8][10][33]<\/span>, crowdfunding <\/span>[1]<\/span>, and the sharing economy <\/span>[11] [39]<\/span>. Crowdsourcing in particular commonly uses the Internet to simplify the coordination of human capital and to employ the \u2018crowd\u2019 \u2013 a mass of people reachable via the Internet<\/span> [2][8]<\/span>[10][29]<\/span> \u2013 for distributed cooperative problem-solving <\/span>[2] [7] [33]<\/span>. Especially crowdsourcing initiatives where large groups of people explicitly work together to jointly create solutions <\/span><[7]<\/span> has drawn attention in recent years. Popular examples, such as Wikipedia (a crowd-generated comprehensive online encyclopedia), OpenStreetMap (a crowd-generated digital world map), Waze (a navigation system with real-time, crowd-generated traffic information), TripAdvisor (an online portal for crowd-generated reviews of hotels, restaurants, and travel locations) Yelp (a crowd-generated world-spanning business directory), or Ingress (an augmented reality game with a crowd-generated database of landmarks and public art) have spawned comprehensive crowd-created solutions that have made our lives easier\u00a0<\/span>[3][9][12][23][27][30][31][33][41]<\/span>.Inspired by these successful approaches, many organizations are now attempting to harness the collective potential of crowds in order to face the increasing need for extensive databases as part of the emerging digitalization. This includes initiatives such as the crowd-based collecting of data for smart cities <\/span>[6]<\/span>, the crowd-creation of ground truths for machine learning approaches<\/span>[38]<\/span>, or the distributed gathering of location-based data to enable autonomous driving <\/span>[13]<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n However, any crowdsourcing initiative’s success strongly depends on the willingness of a reserve of people to participate in collective value creation <\/span>[2][7][22]<\/span>. The design of appropriate incentive mechanisms that get people to participate in crowdsourcing and motivate active crowdsourcees to invite others via word of mouth is thus of great relevance for the designers and operators of crowdsourcing initiatives<\/span>[18][42][43]<\/span>. Studies have shown that extrinsic incentives, such as financial compensations or utilitarian benefits that arise from the purpose of a crowdsourcing initiative, often play a subordinate role in crowdsourcees\u2019 motivations<\/span>[18][40][43]<\/span>. Various studies indicate that crowdsourcees are driven by intrinsic aspects, such as altruism, the sense of accomplishment, self-development, curiosity, competence satisfaction, or relatedness with a community of peers<\/span>[18][21][31][32][40][43]<\/span>. <\/span><\/p>\n Playing games is especially believed to be a culmination of autotelic activities<\/span>[34][37][36]<\/span>. Therefore, crowdsourcing systems are increasingly gamified<\/span>[14] [25][24]<\/span>, that is, designers enrich crowdsourcing systems with design features from games that address humans\u2019 innate intrinsic needs in order to transform participation in crowdsourcing more autotelic<\/span><[15][25]<\/span>. While literature reviews have revealed that crowdsourcing is one of the most popular application areas of gamification [14]<\/span>, and while most implementations of gamification seem to positively influence crowdsourcees\u2019 motivations and behaviors<\/span>[25][24]<\/span>, there is a lack of comparative studies across different gamification designs. The research has primarily investigated the differences between gamified and non-gamified crowdsourcing <\/span>[4][28] [35]<\/span> or the effects of a specific gamification feature ; however, the differences between various gamification design features and particularly the effects of features that invoke different goal structures such as competition, cooperation, and inter-team competition have been largely ignored in gamification <\/span>[5][20][25]<\/span> and game design research.<\/span>[19]<\/span> This knowledge gap prevents us from designing gamification that optimally harnesses the full potential of the crowd <\/span>[25][24]<\/span>. Thus, while there is clear potential to use gamification in crowdsourcing applications, more granular research result would afford more effective gamification designs for crowdsourcing and similar systems where people cooperatively create emerging outcomes.<\/span><\/p>\n To address these gaps, this study investigated how crowdsourcees\u2019 perceived enjoyment and usefulness, behaviors (system usage, crowdsourcing participation, engagement with the gamification feature) and willingness to recommend crowdsourcing approaches are influenced by the use of cooperative, competitive, and inter-team competitive gamification in crowdsourcing systems. First, we conceptualized cooperative, competitive, and inter-team competitive gamification by drawing on social interdependence theory<\/span>[17][16]<\/span> and gamification research<\/span>[25][26].<\/span> Second, we advanced the understanding of their effects on crowdsourcees\u2019 motivations and behaviors by conducting a large field experiment with a gamified crowdsourcing application called <\/span>ParKing<\/span><\/i>, which has been developed for the purpose of this research. Pursued this research advances the understanding of competitive and cooperative settings in gamification and provides design knowledge relating to orchestrating competition and cooperation, especially in context of gamified crowdsourcing as well as in related fields.<\/span><\/p>\n Cooperation or competition \u2013 When do people contribute more? A field experiment on gamification of crowdsourcing<\/span><\/b> Citation: <\/b>Morschheuser B, Hamari J, Maedche A. (2018). Cooperation or competition \u2013 When do people contribute more? A field experiment on gamification of crowdsourcing. <\/span>International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. <\/span><\/i><\/p>\n Please see the paper for full details:<\/span> Abstract<\/b> References<\/b> Image Source During the past decade, advances in modern information and communication technologies have enabled novel forms of economic coordination of under-utilized resources be it human capital, information goods, material goods, or even funding. Perhaps the most noteworthy Internet-based developments that have made resource coordination…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":800,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[3,6,12,20],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/788"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/7"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=788"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/788\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/800"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=788"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=788"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/webpages.tuni.fi\/gamification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=788"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
\n
\nBenedikt Morschheuser<\/span><\/a>
\nJuho Hamari<\/span><\/a>
\nAlexander Maedche<\/span><\/p>\n
\nJournal<\/span><\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>
\nResearchGate<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n
\nInformation technology is being increasingly employed to harness under-utilized resources via more effective coordination. This progress has manifested in different developments, for instance, crowdsourcing (e.g. Wikipedia, Amazon Mechanical Turk, and Waze), crowdfunding (e.g. Kickstarter, Indiegogo, and RocketHub) or the sharing economy (e.g. Uber, Airbnb, and Didi Chuxing). Since the sustainability of these IT-enabled forms of resource coordination do not commonly rely merely on direct economic benefits of the participants, but also on other non-monetary, intrinsic gratifications, such systems are increasingly gamified that is, designers use features of games to induce enjoyment and general autotelicy of the activity. However, a key problem in gamification design has been whether it is better to use competition-based or cooperation-based designs. We examine this question through a field experiment in a gamified crowdsourcing system, employing three versions of gamification: competitive, cooperative, and inter-team competitive gamification. We study these gamified conditions\u2019 effects on users\u2019 perceived enjoyment and usefulness of the system as well as on their behaviors (system usage, crowdsourcing participation, engagement with the gamification feature, and willingness to recommend the crowdsourcing application). The results reveal that inter-team competitions are most likely to lead to higher enjoyment and crowdsourcing participation, as well as to a higher willingness to recommending a system. Further, the findings indicate that designers should consider cooperative instead of competitive approaches to increase users\u2019 willingness to recommend crowdsourcing systems. These insights add relevant findings to the ongoing discourse on the roles of different types of competitions in gamification designs and suggest that crowdsourcing system designers and operators should implement gamification with competing teams instead of typically used competitions between individuals.<\/span><\/p>\n
\n[1]Agrawal, A., Catalini, C., Goldfarb, A., 2014. Some simple economics of crowdfunding. Innov. Policy Econ. 14, 63\u201397. <\/span>
\n[2]Brabham, D.C., 2013. Crowdsourcing. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA.
\n[3] Budhathoki, N.R., Haythornthwaite, C., 2013. Motivation for open collaboration: crowd and community models and the case of OpenStreetMap. Am. Behav. Sci. 57, 548\u2013575.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>
\n[4]Brito, J., Vieira, V., Duran, A., 2015. Towards a framework for gamification design on crowdsourcing systems: the G.A.M.E. approach. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Information Technology \u2013 New Generations. IEEE, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, pp. 445\u2013450.
\n[5]Bui, A., Veit, D., Webster, J., 2015. Gamification \u2013 a novel phenomenon or a new wrapping for existing concepts? In: Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Information Systems. Fort Worth, Texas, USA. pp. 1\u201321.<\/span>
\n[6]Cardone, G., Foschini, L., Bellavista, P., Corradi, A., Borcea, C., Talasila, M., Curtmola, R., 2013. Fostering participation in smart cities: a geo-social crowdsensing platform. IEEE Commun. Mag. 51, 112\u2013119.<\/span>
\n[7]Doan, A., Ramakrishnan, R., Halevy, A.Y., 2011. Crowdsourcing systems on the world- wide web. Commun. ACM 54, 86\u201396.
\n[8]Estell\u00e9s-Arolas, E., Gonz\u00e1lez-Ladr\u00f3n-de-Guevara, F., 2012. Towards an integrated crowdsourcing definition. J. Inf. Sci. 38, 189\u2013200.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span>
\n[9]Geiger, D., Schader, M., 2014. Personalized task recommendation in crowdsourcing information systems \u2013 current state of the art. Decis. Support Syst. 65, 3\u201316. <\/span>
\n[10]Howe, J., 2006. The rise of crowdsourcing. Wired 14.<\/span>
\n[11]Hamari, J., Sj\u00f6klint, M., Ukkonen, A., 2016b. The sharing economy: why people participate in collaborative consumption. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 67, 2047\u20132059.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/asi.23552.<\/span>
\n[12]Haklay, M., Weber, P., 2008. OpenStreetMap: user-generated street maps. IEEE Pervasive Comput 7, 12\u201318.<\/span>
\n[13]Hu, S., Su, L., Liu, H., Wang, H., Abdelzaher, T.F., 2015. SmartRoad: smartphone-based crowd sensing for traffic regulator detection and identification. ACM Trans. Sens. Networks 11, 1\u201327.<\/span>
\n[14]Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., Sarsa, H., 2014. Does gamification work? \u2013 A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. In: Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Waikoloa, HI. IEEE, pp. 3025\u20133034.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[15]Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., 2015a. Why do people use gamification services? Int. J. Inf. Manage. 35, 419\u2013431.<\/span>
\n[16]Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., 1989. Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Interaction Book Company.<\/span>
\n[17]Johnson, D.W., 2003. Social interdependence: interrelationships among theory, research, and practice. Am. Psychol. 58, 934\u2013945.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[18]Kaufmann, N., Schulze, T., Veit, D., 2011. More than fun and money. Worker motivation in crowdsourcing \u2013 a study on Mechanical Turk. In: Proceedings of the 17th Americas Conference on Information Systems \u2013 Amcis. Detroit, Michigan, USA. pp. 3012\u20133022.<\/span>
\n[19]Liu, D., Li, X., Santhanam, R., 2013. Digital games and beyond: what happens when players compete? MIS Q 37, 111\u2013124.<\/span>
\n[20]Liu, D., Santhanam, R., Webster, J., 2017. Towards meaningful engagement: a framework for design and research of gamified information systems. MIS Q 41, 1011\u20131034.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[21]Lakhani, K.R., Wolf, R.G., 2005. Why hackers do what they do: Understanding motivation and effort in free \/ Open Source software projects. In: Feller, J., Fitzgerald, B., Hissam, S., Lakhani, K.R. (Eds.), Why hackers do what they do: Understanding motivation and effort in free \/ Open Source software projects. In: Feller, J., Fitzgerald, B., Hissam, S., Lakhani, K.R. (Eds.), Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 3\u201321.<\/span>
\n[22]Law, E., Ahn, L.Von, 2011. Human computation. Synth. Lect. Artif. Intell. Mach. Learn.<\/span>
\n[23]Levina, N., Arriaga, M., 2014. Distinction and status production on user-generated content platforms: using Bourdieu’s theory of cultural production to understand social dynamics in online fields. Inf. Syst. Res. 25, 468\u2013488.<\/span>
\n[24]Morschheuser, B., Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., 2016. Gamification in crowdsourcing: a review. In: Proceedings of the 49th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS). Kauai, Hawaii, USA. IEEE, pp. 4375\u20134384.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[25]Morschheuser, B., Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., Maedche, A., 2017a. Gamified crowdsourcing: conceptualization, literature review, and future agenda. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 106, 26\u201343.<\/span>
\n[26]Morschheuser, B., Maedche, A., Walter, D., 2017b. Designing cooperative gamification: conceptualization and prototypical implementation. In: Proceedings of the 20th ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing (CSCW 2017). Portland, OR, USA. ACM, pp. 2410\u20132421.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[27]Morschheuser, B., Riar, M., Hamari, J., Maedche, A., 2017c. How games induce cooperation? A study on the relationship between game features and we-intentions in an augmented reality game. Comput. Human Behav. 77, 169\u2013183.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[28]Massung, E., Coyle, D., Cater, K.F., Jay, M., Preist, C., 2013. Using crowdsourcing to support pro-environmental community activism. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems \u2013 CHI \u201913. Paris, France. pp. 371\u2013380. <\/span>
\n[29]Nakatsu, R., Grossman, E., Iacovou, C., 2014. A taxonomy of crowdsourcing based on task complexity. J. Inf. Sci. 40, 823\u2013834.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[30]Nakatsu, R., Grossman, E., Iacovou, C., 2014. A taxonomy of crowdsourcing based on task complexity. J. Inf. Sci. 40, 823\u2013834.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[31]Nov, O., 2007. What motivates wikipedians? Commun. ACM 50, 60\u201364.<\/span>
\n[32]Nov, O., Naaman, M., Ye, C., 2010. Analysis of participation in an online photo-sharing community: a multidimensional perspective. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 14, 555\u2013566.<\/span>
\n[33]Prpi\u0107, J., Shukla, P.P., Kietzmann, J.H., McCarthy, I.P., 2015a. How to work a crowd: developing crowd capital through crowdsourcing. Bus. Horiz. 58, 77\u201385.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[34]Przybylski, A.K., Rigby, C.S., Ryan, R.M., 2010. A motivational model of video game engagement. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 14, 154\u2013166.<\/span>
\n[35]Prandi, C., Roccetti, M., Salomoni, P., Nisi, V., Nunes, N.J., 2016. Fighting exclusion: a multimedia mobile app with zombies and maps as a medium for civic engagement and design. Multimed. Tools Appl. 76, 4951\u20134979.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[36]Ryan, R.M., Rigby, C.S., Przybylski, A., 2006. The motivational pull of video games: a self- determination theory approach. Motiv. Emot. 30, 344\u2013360.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[37]Rigby, S., 2015. Gamification and motivation. In: Walz, S.P., Deterding, S. (Eds.), The Gameful World: Approaches, Issues, Applications. MIT Press, pp. 113\u2013137.<\/span>
\n[38]Rosani, A., Boato, G., De Natale, F.G.B., 2015. EventMask: a game-based framework for event-saliency identification in images. IEEE Trans. Multimed.\u00a0<\/span>
\n[39]Sundararajan, A., 2016. The sharing economy. The MIT Press, London.<\/span>
\n[40]Soliman, W., Tuunainen, V.K., 2015. Understanding continued use of crowdsourcing systems: an interpretive Study. J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res. 10, 1\u201318.<\/span>
\n[41]Takahashi, D., 2014. Google’s mobile game Ingress enables 7 M players to create user-generated missions. VentureBeat. http:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2014\/09\/25\/googles- mobile-game-ingress-enables-7m-players-to-create-user-generated-missions\/ (accessed 2.11.17).<\/span>
\n[42]Zhao, Y., Zhu, Q., 2014a. Evaluation on crowdsourcing research: current status and future direction. Inf. Syst. Front. 16, 417\u2013434.
\n[43]Zhao, Y., Zhu, Q., 2014b. Effects of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on participation in crowdsourcing contest. Online Inf. Rev. 38, 896\u2013917.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"